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BetOnline 98%64% Craps Best 😗 paying online Casino 2024 10 2 it your bets- Once you feel confident with the basic rules, try splitting your 😗 your across multiple spaces and start placing bet on some of the bonus games. Crazy Time caça níquelcodigo betano bonusmelhores jogos de roleta para ganhar dinheiro3 bet. blaze dice como jogar Sprint Training The vast majority of scientific studies investigating sprint training methods are performed on young team sport athletes where brief 💲 sprints with short recoveries are the norm [1,2,3,4]. Therefore, sprint training recommendations from the research literature have limited relevance to 💲 competitive sprinting, where elite 100-m athletes perform sprint-specific training over various distances. Practitioners classify sprint running either according to phase 💲 of interest or primary energy system used [11,12,13,14,15,16]. For the latter, sprint duration shorter than 6–7 s is considered alactic, 💲 while longer sprints are considered lactic [11,12,13,14,15,16]. In the following paragraphs, we present best practice guidelines for specific sprint training 💲 according to phase of interest. Total volume within these sessions is typically guided by the intensity and visual inspection of 💲 technique. That is, the session should be ended when drop-off in performance and/or technical deterioration is observed [11, 13,14,15,16]. Table 💲 2 summarizes the best practice guidelines, while Table 3 shows examples of training weeks across varying meso-cycles. Table 2 Summary of 💲 best practice sprint training recommendations Full size table Table 3 Training week examples across varying meso-cycles Full size table Acceleration When acceleration is 💲 the primary focus, leading practitioners recommend 10–50-m sprints from blocks, crouched or a three-point start position [10, 11, 13,14,15,16,17,18]. Block 💲 starts are considered more energetically costly than standing starts. The distances used will vary depending on athlete performance level, as 💲 better sprinters reach higher top speeds and accelerate longer than their lower performing counterparts. Full recovery is required between each 💲 sprint, allowing the athlete to perform each repetition without a drop-off in performance. According to the UK Athletics, longer recoveries 💲 are required for elite sprinters who are reaching higher absolute intensities than for younger developmental athletes [15]. A typical acceleration 💲 session for a young and relatively untrained athlete might be runs over 20 m from a crouched start with 2-min 💲 recovery between each repetition, while an elite sprinter may perform sprints over 40 m from blocks with 7-min recovery in 💲 between [15]. Maximal Velocity Flying sprints are typically recommended when the focus is to develop maximal velocity [11, 13,14,15,16]. The aim is 💲 to reach the highest velocity possible and continue the sprint run for only as long as velocity does not decrease. 💲 Athletes are able to maintain maximal velocity for only around 10–30 m, depending on performance level and training status [31, 💲 32]. Flying sprints are often performed from a rolling (jog in) start. Although the rate of acceleration is reduced, the 💲 athlete may be able to achieve a higher maximum velocity or reach the same velocity as after maximal acceleration but 💲 using less energy. The run-up distance typically ranges from 20 to 60 m, depending on the distance an athlete needs 💲 to reach the highest speeds. Young and relatively untrained athletes may use a 20-m build-up for 10-m flying sprints with 💲 ~ 4-min recovery in between. In contrast, elite competitors may use a 40-m build-up for 30-m flying sprints. Because their 💲 speeds may approach 12 m s− 1, the recovery interval may need to be ~ 15 min before they can 💲 reproduce the performance again [11, 13,14,15,16]. Sprint-Specific Endurance The aim of sprint-specific endurance training is to improve the ability to maintain sprint 💲 velocity for as long as possible. Such training is typified by runs lasting 7–15 s at 95–100% intensity, with full 💲 recovery used between repetitions and sets [11, 13,14,15,16,17,18]. A rule of thumb among practitioners is that 1–2-min recovery is required 💲 for every second spent on maximal sprinting [15, 16]. The higher the performance standard, the longer the recovery periods are 💲 required. While 2–3 × 100-m sprints with 10-min recovery may be an adequate sprint-specific endurance session for a relatively untrained 💲 junior, a well-trained elite competitor may perform 4–6 × 150-m sprints with 20–30-min recovery between repetitions [15, 16]. Speed Endurance While most 💲 scientific studies recommend that sprinting repetitions should be performed with maximal velocity [1,2,3,4], acknowledged practitioners have over decades prescribed sprint 💲 training during the preparation phase with sub-maximal intensity. Pioneer sprint coach Carlo Vittori (founder of the European School in sprint 💲 training and coach of the former 200-m world record holder Pietro Mennea) introduced the “speed endurance” concept already in the 💲 mid-1970s [12]. This consisted of series with repeated sprints over 60–80 m, interspersed with approximately 2- and 8-min recovery between 💲 sprints and series. The intensity began at 90% of maximal sprint velocity in the initial weeks and progressed to 95% 💲 throughout the preparation period. This was accompanied by a gradual increase in total volume from 6 to 800 m (e.g., 💲 2 series of 5 × 60 m) and up to 1500–2000 m (e.g., 5 series of 5 × 60 m) 💲 during the preparation phase. However, as the competition season approached, the total volume decreased while the intensity gradually increased to 💲 maximal effort [12]. Vittori’s speed endurance concept has later been adopted by other acknowledged sprint coaches [11, 13,14,15,16]. Available evidence in 💲 endurance and strength training also demonstrates that high but sub-maximal intensity loading effectively stimulates adaptation through the interaction between high 💲 intensity and larger accumulated work that can be achieved before the onset of fatigue, compared with maximal efforts [90, 108]. 💲 While most practitioners argue that 92–95% intensity is required [11, 13,14,15,16], the lowest effective sprinting intensity for stimulating adaptation is 💲 so far not established in the research literature. Given the exponential relationship between power and velocity, a reduction from maximal 💲 to ~ 95% of maximal velocity represents a substantial reduction in force and power load on the neuromuscular system. Most 💲 coaches tend to link speed endurance training to the deceleration phase of the sprint. Scientific studies of team sport athletes 💲 indicate that sub-maximal sprinting (i.e., ~ 90–95% of maximal velocity) is more effective for enhancing maximal velocity than for improving 💲 the acceleration phase [109,110,111]. Practitioners typically assess the athletes’ velocity during sprint training sessions for control and intensity regulation, and timing 💲 gates with 10–30-m intervals are typically used for this purpose. The intensity scale in Table 4, which is based on 💲 the velocity obtained during 10-, 20-, and 30-m splits (excluding the acceleration phase), can assist practitioners during sprint-specific training sessions. Table 💲 4 Intensity scale for sprint training expressed as 10-, 20-, and 30-m flying splits (s) Full size table Resisted Sprinting Resisted sprinting 💲 is a commonly used method to overload specific capacities for sprinting acceleration performance, including uphill sprinting, sled sprints, or using 💲 motorized devices. Although sled sprints have been most investigated in the research literature [2], uphill sprinting has also been reported 💲 as an effective tool for sprint performance improvement, at least in team sport players [112, 113]. It has been suggested 💲 that resisted sprint training may be a more effective tool to improve horizontal force and power production during sprinting compared 💲 with, e.g., traditional strength and power training performed in the gym [2, 114]. It is hypothesized that better transfer to 💲 sprint performance can be achieved if the resistance training exercises mimic the motor pattern and contraction type of performance movement. 💲 Resisted sprints are typically categorized based on the performance time decrement induced by the resistance into light (< 10% velocity 💲 decrement), moderate (10–15%), heavy (15–30%), and very heavy (> 30%) loads [2]. A limited number of studies have exceeded relatively 💲 light resistance loading in fear of constraints such as slower running velocity and/or altered running technique [2, 115]. However, acknowledged 💲 scientists have recently questioned this approach, as strength and power exercises with heavy weights might be replaced by moderate to 💲 very heavy resisted sprint loading [114, 116, 117]. According to Cross et al. [114], the optimal loading for maximizing power 💲 output during resisted sprinting is a resistance that reduces the maximal velocity by ~ 50%. Morin et al. [117] tested 💲 the use of very heavy resistance load in soccer players and observed a substantial, increased horizontal force production when compared 💲 with non-resisted sprinting. However, only trivial between-group differences were observed for power output and sprint performance. Because peak power output 💲 during a maximal sprint is reached after very few steps and falls substantially during the remaining part of the sprint 💲 [23, 38], it is reasonable to assume that the entire power output range should be targeted during the training process. 💲 What is beneficial for a small portion of the sprint is not necessarily beneficial for overall performance. Haugen et al. 💲 [35] proposed that heavy resisted sprinting is likely more appropriate for sports where the athletes are required to perform brief 💲 sprints while moving an external mass (e.g., bobsleigh). Overall, the literature is equivocal regarding the potential short-term effects of resisted 💲 sprinting when compared with sprinting under normal conditions [2, 3]. Still, specific adaptations are observed for resisted sprint training. That 💲 is, resisted sprint training improves resisted sprint performance more than sprint performance under normal conditions [118]. Whether enhanced resisted sprint 💲 performance provides potential transfer effects to normal sprinting over time remains unknown. Resisted sprinting is commonly used in the preparatory training 💲 phase among successful sprint groups [10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. However, the resistance loading varies across groups and individuals. While the UK Athletics argues 💲 that only light loads should be used to ensure proper running mechanics [15, 16], some of the very best Jamaican 💲 sprinters (e.g., Asafa Powell) have applied heavy resistance loads during sled sprints [10]. However, resisted sprinting is not prioritized during 💲 the competition season in either of these elite sprinting groups. Assisted Sprinting Assisted sprinting (e.g., downhill running, being pulled by an elastic 💲 cord or motorized devices) has occasionally been used by scientists and practitioners as a tool for maximal velocity improvement. Athletes 💲 are typically advised to focus on high step rate when approaching their maximal velocity during assisted sprints [103, 119, 120]. 💲 That is, supramaximal velocity should be a result of higher step rate, shorter ground contact times, and higher hip angle 💲 velocities. Clark et al. [121] observed that towing force magnitude influences the kinematics of supramaximal running. Potentially negative training effects 💲 may arise (e.g., increased foot touchdown distance relative to center of mass), and towing force should be individualized to avoid 💲 poorer sprint mechanics. Due to the lack of studies investigating assisted sprinting and differences in methodology, it is difficult to 💲 draw conclusions from the research literature. Practitioners are generally reluctant to use assisted sprinting devices due to injury risk [10, 💲 11, 13,14,15,16], although tail wind sprinting is typically preferred on windy days. Some athletes include assisted sprinting as a part 💲 of the warm-up routines prior to competitions. To the best of our knowledge, no studies or practitioners to date have 💲 applied assisted sprints for energy preservation purposes. Athletes may be able to perform higher volumes of sub-maximal sprinting (e.g., ~ 💲 95% intensity) during assisted conditions as each sprint is performed with less perceived effort compared to sprinting under normal conditions. 💲 This approach remains to be tested. Technical Training Although research literature has emphasized the importance of technique on sprint running performance [20, 💲 24, 33, 38, 40, 49, 51], very few sprint-related studies are devoted to how optimal mechanics can be achieved. The 💲 concept of competency-based progression is particularly emphasized in motor learning literature. That is, athletes should not progress to more challenging 💲 aspects of training until they master the underpinning principles [122]. Childhood is clearly the most opportune time for fundamental movement 💲 skill mastery [123, 124], and acknowledged practitioners have experienced that running movements become more challenging to modify when approaching senior 💲 age [10, 11, 15, 16]. Improving a sprinter’s mechanics can be considered a career-long pursuit. Although sprint training “always” involves technical 💲 aspects, sprint drills are commonly used by practitioners to reinforce the technical work, for proprioception, and to isolate specific movement 💲 features [10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. These include hurdle drills, walking high knees, running high knees, skips, and straight leg bounding, with focus on 💲 posture, high hips, front-foot landing, configuration at touchdown and lift-off, etc. Drills are low-speed exercises that are easier to control 💲 than high-speed running, typically performed as a part of warm-up routine. Motor learning research tells us that for positive reinforcement 💲 of the technique to occur, the biomechanics used in practice must closely resemble those used in competition [89, 122]. Hence, 💲 sprint drills must target key technical elements, ensuring crossover effects to normal sprinting over time. Such exercises must be prescribed 💲 individually to target the athlete’s limiting factor and provide each athlete a feeling of proper sprinting mechanics [11, 15, 16]. Well-developed 💲 coaching skills are a necessity for the practitioner to effectively interact with athletes of all levels [80]. Indeed, coaching communication, 💲 feedback, and specific verbal instructions play an integral role in the skill development of sprinting [10, 11, 13, 14]. Although 💲 external focus (i.e., on the desired movement effect) has been highlighted in the research literature for enhancing motor performance and 💲 skill learning [125,126,127], most novice coaches use verbal cues during practice that promote an internal focus of attention (i.e., on 💲 body movements) [128]. The very best coaches provide allegorical/metaphorical feedback where attention is called upon the athlete’s feeling while executing 💲 the practices [129]. For example, the cue “trim the grass with your toes” can be used when the aim is 💲 to reduce the flight time during the very first steps of the acceleration phase [128]. Here, art and science do 💲 seem to merge, given the interrelation between word choices during instruction, interpreted motor pattern change by athlete, and resulting force 💲 and power production. According to Glen Mills, the coach of Usain Bolt, focused athletes with well-developed proprioceptive senses are paramount 💲 for coaching to be successful [10]. Strength and Power Training Strength and power training has received considerable research attention over the years, 💲 and training recommendations for hypertrophy, maximal strength, and power are outlined for novice, intermediate, and advanced athletes [90, 129]. Ballistic 💲 exercises with loading up to ~ 60% of one repetition maximum appear to be a highly potent loading stimulus for 💲 improving maximal power [90, 130, 131]. However, heavier loading might be necessary to increase the force component of the power 💲 equation. Although there is a fundamental relationship between strength and power [130, 132, 133], improvements in sprinting performance do not 💲 necessarily occur immediately after a period of strength training [134]. In fact, heavy strength training may induce negative short-term effects 💲 on sprint performance [135]. As an athlete gets heavier, the energy cost of accelerating that mass also increases, as does 💲 the aerodynamic drag associated with pushing a wider frontal area through the air. “Bigger” is not necessarily better for sprinting, 💲 likely explaining why male and female elite sprinters have a body mass of “only” 77 ± 7 and 58 ± 💲 5 kg, respectively [136]. Haugen et al. [35] observed that volleyball/beach volleyball players were among the best sports in terms 💲 of horizontal force production during accelerated running, while weight-/powerlifters produced clearly lower values despite no substantial group mean differences in 💲 body mass. Vertically oriented and heavy strength training of the lower limbs does not automatically translate to higher horizontal force 💲 production during accelerated sprinting [137], but the probability of positive effects increases when strength and sprint training are combined [90, 💲 138, 139]. Strength and power training is crucial parts of the overall training strategy among leading sprint practitioners, and such training 💲 is typically performed 2–3 times per week during the preparation period [10, 11, 13, 14, 18]. Exercise selection typically varies 💲 from general (e.g., squat, snatch, clean and jerk) to more “sprint specific” (e.g., split squats, single-leg deadlifts, lunges, step-ups, and 💲 one-legged squats). Sequencing of sessions differs among coaches, but the majority schedule strength training the day after sprint-specific training to 💲 avoid sore muscles when sprinting. Strength and power training is typically structured as consecutive 4–6-week cycles where emphasis is first 💲 put on hypertrophy, then maximal strength, and finally explosive strength/power/plyometric training [11, 13, 14, 138]. The goal of this model 💲 is to “transform” maximum strength in weight room exercises into functional power on the track. These periods of heavy strength 💲 training are often combined with high volumes of sprint training at sub-maximal intensity. The closer to the competition season is, 💲 the more emphasis on maximal velocity sprinting, explosive strength, and ballistic exercises [11, 13, 14, 18]. Overall, no major discrepancies 💲 in sprint-related strength and power training recommendations can be observed between science and best practice when comparing these literature sources. Plyometric 💲 Training Plyometric exercises are characterized by rapid stretch-shortening cycle muscle actions and include a range of unilateral and bilateral bounding, hopping, 💲 jumping, and medicine ball throw variations [140]. Plyometric training is normally performed with little or no external resistance and has 💲 been shown to significantly improve maximal power output during sport-specific movements [130, 141]. As a rule, the more specific a 💲 plyometric exercise is to stretch rate and load characteristics of the sport movement, the greater the transfer of the training 💲 effect to performance. Sprinters are encouraged to use different types of high-intensive bounding, jumping, and skipping exercises to ensure that 💲 power production is exerted in the horizontal plane [130, 141]. The underlying mechanisms are theorized to elicit specific adaptations in 💲 neural drive, rate of neural activation, and intermuscular control, which result in an improved rate of force development [130]. The reutilization 💲 of stored energy as a strategy for sprint performance has recently been questioned by Haugen et al. [24], as storage 💲 and release of elastic energy take time. Human tendons stretch under load, and sprinters should likely minimize the downside of 💲 having these elastic connectors. Adding to the argument, world-class performers sprint with considerably higher leg stiffness than their lower performing 💲 counterparts [24]. Based on these considerations, sprinters should focus on leg stiffness (e.g., short ground contact time) during plyometric exercises. 💲 Interestingly, this approach was utilized with seeming success by coach Carlo Vittori and the Italian School of sprint training already 💲 in the 1970s. The best athlete, Pietro Mennea, performed horizontal jumps and skipping exercises with a weight belt, and ground 💲 contact time during these exercises never exceeded 100 ms [12]. This contact time is very similar to those obtained by 💲 elite sprinters at maximal velocity [24]. Mennea also performed assisted sprints while equipped with a weight belt (weight vests serve 💲 the same purpose). Although these training methods offer strong leg stiffness stimulations, they are demanding and probably increase injury risk, 💲 particularly for the Achilles tendon. This may explain why most practitioners perform more traditional plyometric drills as bilateral obstacle (hurdle) 💲 jumps, multi jump circuits, medicine ball throws, and unilateral bounding exercises [10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. Although the highest volumes are accomplished during the 💲 preparation phase, some plyometric training is performed during the competition season [10, 11, 15, 16]. {nl} |
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